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EDITED  BY  THE  ARMY  WAR  COLLEGE 


January,  1918 


WASHINGTON 
GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE 

1920 


War  Department 

Document  No.  727 

Otft.ce  of  The  Adjutant  General. 


Gilt 


WAR  DEPARTMENT, 

Washington,  Jomuary  3^  1918. 

The  following  notes  on  "  Camouflage  for  Troops  of  the  Line  "  are 
published  for  the  information  of  all  concerned. 

[062.1,  A.  G.  o.] 

By  order  of  the  Secretary  of  War  : 

TASKER  H.  BLISS, 
General^  Chief  of  Staff, 
Official  : 

H.  P.  McCAIN, 

The  Adjutcmt  General. 

3 


547:<L'7 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2007  with  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/camouflagefortroOOarmyrich 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


Page. 

Introductory T 

Section  1.  Concealment 7 

Concealment  by  frank  screening 8 

I.  Employment  of  screens 8 

11.  Conditions  of  effectiveness 9 

III.  Materials  and  types  of  screens 9 

IV.  Opacity ^^ 10 

V.  Visibility 10 

VI.  Siting  of  road  screens 12 

VII.  Flash   screens 12 

Concealment  by  mimicry  or  simulation 12 

Trenches 12 

Gun  positions 14 

Artillery  in  the  open 15 

Camouflage  by  distraction 16 

Section  2.  Camouflage  discipline 18 

Organization  of  dummy  batteries 18 

Tracks 19 

Batteries 19 

Section  3.  Special  cases 20 

Buildings  and  shadows 20 

Buildings 21 

Protective    coloration 21 

Paint  and  photography 22 

Gun  emplacements  and  military  works 23 

Railways 23 

Observation   posts 24 

5 


CAMOUFLAGE  FOR  TROOPS  OF  THE  LINE. 


INTRODUCTORY. 

Under  the  head  of  camouflage  may  be  included  all  precautions 
taken  to  render  positions  and  moving  objects  of  military  importance 
less  visible.  These  precautions  are  by  no  means  limited  to.  work 
done  by  specially  organized  camouflage  troops,  but  every  command 
must  think  and  operate  independently  to  lessen  its  visibility  and  to 
render  its  movements  or  positions  less  easy  to  range.  The  subject 
naturally  divides  itself  into  two  separate  heads : 
First.  Concealment. 
Second.    Camouflage  discipline. 

Neither  is  of  value  without  the  other. 

I.    CONCEALMENT. 

The  feature  of  camouflage  work  which  is  most  generally  dis- 
cussed and  widely  known  is  concealment.  It  may  be  accomplished 
in  any  of  the  three  following  ways,  as  the  case  may  demand,  but 
will  usually  be  accomplished  by  a  combination  of  two  or  all  three 
of  the  methods : 

(a)  Frank  screening  of  the  object,  which  hides  the  object,  although 
the  screen  itself  is  obvious. — This  should  only  be  employed  where  the 
extent  of  the  screening  is  great  by  comparison  with  the  object  con- 
cealed. Example:  Roads  may  be  covered  for  long  stretches  with 
burlap  both  to  the  sides  and  overhead,  affording  a  considerable  meas- 
ure of  security  to  the  troops  using  the  roads,  since  it  is  not  worth 
while  to  fire  continuously  on  a  long  stretch  of  road  on  the  chance 
that  some  part  of  it  may  be  in  use. 

(b)  Mimicry  or  simulation  of  natural  objects. — ^In  this  type  of 
concealment  the  material  used  must  appear  to  be  part  of  the  terrain. 
There  is  no  condition  where  this  is  inadvisable  except  where  it  may 
be  too  expensive  in  time  or  labor,  by  comparison  with  the  result  ob- 
tained, as  in  the  case  of  screens  before  cited.  Example  of  proper  use : 
Covering  gun  pits  with  cloth,  wire,  and  earth  to  simulate  the  earth 
about  them. 

(c)  Concealment  by  distraction. — ^Attention  may  be  diverted  from 
camouflaged  objects  or  from  inconspicuous  uncamouflaged  objects  by 


8  ,\     pAMoiJirC(AGE  TOn  'troops  of  the  line. 

the  erection  of  more  conspicuous  objects  in  their  neighborhood.  Ex- 
ample: Dummy  trenches  dug  to  divert  attention  from  camouflaged 
trenches. 

II.    CAMOUFLAGE  DISCIPLINE. 

This  is  a  feature  of  camouflage  work  which  has  been  given  much 
greater  consideration  abroad  than  would  appear  to  be  generally 
known.  Camouflage  discipline  means  that  the  men  in  any  position 
must  be  required  to  so  conduct  their  movements  that  traces  of  their 
presence  will  not  appear,  and  the  construction  of  false  positions  will 
not  deceive  unless  traces  of  movement  appear  near  them.  Example : 
A  camouflaged  gun  position  should  show  no  tracks;  a  dummy  gun 
position  in  the  neighborhood  should  have  faint  paths  leading  to  it 
and  footworn  places  in  the  neighborhood. 

Capt.  Colby  of  .the  Belgian  Artillery  says : 

Camouflage  discipline  should  exist  and  be  enforced  much  as  sanitary  disci- 
pline is  enforced.  The  regulations  are  the  same  irksome,  prohibitive  type,  and 
are  particularly  disagreeable  to  the  careless  soldier.  They  should  be  enforced  as 
sanitary  regulations  are  enforced,  by  instruction  to  the  perso&hel,  clearly  de- 
monstrating the  necessity  and  reason  for  the  regulations,  and  by  a  never-ceasing 
vigilance  on  the  part  of  the  officers  relative  to  their  enforcement. 

Section  1.— CONCEALMENT. 

The  three  methods  of  concealment  mentioned  in  the  introduction, 
by  screening,  by  mimicry  or  simulation,  and  by  distraction,  are  al- 
most equally  applicable  to  all  classes  of  objects  and  are  generally  used 
in  conjunction;  but  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  no  concealment 
without  camouflage  discipline  can  be  successful. 

CONCEALMENT  BY   FRANK    SCREENING. 

[Quoted  verbatim  from  an  English  oflacial  document.] 
I. — Employment  of  Screens. 

1.  Scieens  are  employed  for  the  purpose  of  concealing  from  direct  observa- 
tion— 

(a)  Roads,  tracks,  trenches,  and  areas. 

(&)  Ground  which  is  waterlogged,  where  it  is  impossible  to  dig  communica- 
tion trenches  and  over  which  it  is  necessary  to  move  troops. 

(c)  Battery  positions  and  gun  flashes. 

(d)  Work  in  progress  and  new  work. 

(e)  Dumps. 

They  are  also  used  for  the  purpose  of — 

(f)  Thickening  hedges  which  are  not  sufficiently  opaque  of  themselves. 

(g)  Representing  trenches. 

(h)  Encouraging  the  enemy  to  waste  ammunition,  by  their  erection  where 
there  is  nothing  to  hide  or  conceal. 

2.  Their  main  function,  however,  is  concealment,  so  that  if  the  enemy  fires 
on  them  without  aerial  observation,  he  can  only  do  so  on  the  chance  of  there 
being  something  behind  them. 


CAMOUFLAGE  FOR  TROOPS  OF  THE  LINE.  9 

II. — Conditions  of  Effectiveness. 

3.  To  be  effective,  screens  should  fulfil  the  following  conditions : 

(a)  Materials  and  construction. — The  material  should  be  as  light  as  possible, 
for  convenience  of  carriage ;  at  the  same  time,  the  construction  should  t)e  suffi- 
ciently strong  to  resist  weather,  and  should  not  be  liable  to  extensive  damage 
by  shell  fire. 

They  must  be  easily  repairable  if  damaged  by  weather  or  shell  fire. 

They  must  be  capable  of  being  made  and  erected  rapidly. 

( 6 )  Opacity. — The  whole  surface  of  the  screen  need  not  necessarily  be  opaque 
material  to  insure  that  the  screen  as  a  whole  conceals  movement  from  the  near- 
est hostile  points  of  observation. 

(c)  Invisihility. — Whether  the  screens  should  be  arranged  so  that  they  are 
not  likely  to  be  recognized  as  such,  or  whether  it  is  of  vital  importance  to 
render  them  inconspicuous,  is  a  matter  for  decision  in  each  particular  case. 

III. — Matekials  and  Types  of  Screens. 

4.  The  forms  of  screening  found  most  suitable  are : 

{a)  Wire  netting  garnished  with  grass,  brushwood,  or  canvas  strips.  It  may 
be  noted  that  screens  made  of  string  netting  interlaced  with  grass  or  brushwood 
are  troublesome  to  put  up  and  do  not  stand  weather. 

(&)  Brushwood  and  tree  branches  interwoven  on  horizontal  wires  stretched 
between  rigid  uprights. 

5.  On  both  these  natures  of  screens,  (a)  and  (&),  shell  fire  has  practically 
no  effect  unless  a  direct  hit  is  obtained;  and  even  then,  if  they  are  properly 
constructed,  the  effect  should  be  very  local.  They  also  stand  the  weather  well. 
Grass  screens,  however,  when  dry  are  somewhat  inflammable. 

6.  Brushw^ood  is  probably  the  best  natural  form  of  screen.  It  has  no  straight 
edges,  harmonizes  with  most  surroundings,  and  is  easily  repairable.  When  it 
fades  or  dies  it  can  be  thickened  up. 

7.  Other  forms  of  screens  employed  are: 

(c)  Complete  canvas  or  burlap  screens. — These  in  certain  cases  are  necessary, 
e.  g.,  to  hide  flashes  or  movement  at  close  range  (up  to  2,000  yards). 

Such  screens  are  highly  susceptible  to  damage  by  weather  and  shell  fire, 
must  be  extra  firmly  supported  and,  if  possible,  backed  with  wife  netting. 
Wind  has  naturally  a  considerable  effect  on  them. 

{d)  Jute  screening  (a  generic  temi  for  cocoanut  or  jute  matting). — ^This  in 
single  thicknesses  is  transparent ;  used  double  it  forms  an  excellent  and  quickly 
constructed  screen.  The  mesh  is  about  one-fourth  inch.  It  is  useful  as  a 
temporary  expedient,  but  does  not  stand  the  weather  well.  It  should  always  be 
reinforced  with  longitudinal  wires. 

It  has  been  employed  with  good  results  for  horizontal  screening,  to  conceal 
machine-gun  nests,  entrances  to  deep  dug-outs,  etc.,  and  has  been  stretched  over 
a  row  of  huts  of  an  advanced  headquarters  to  hide  the  shadows  which  would 
have  revealed  the  huts  in  .an  aeroplane  photograph. 

Tobacco  shade  cloth  is  a  light  cotton  cloth  much  used  for  covering  tobacco 
fields.  The  mesh  is  so  open  that  the  wind  blows  through  freely,  and  the 
cloth  is  not  liable  to  serious  damage;  the  supports  may,  therefore,  be  lighter 
than  those  for  burlap  or  canvas.    The  material  will  last  easily  three  months. 

8.  In  general,  canvas  and  jute  screens  are  affected  much  more  rapidly  by 
weather  than  are  those  made  of  wire  garnished  with  brushwood  and  grass, 
and  are  less  easily  kept  in  repair. 

162841°— 20 2 


10  CAMOUFLAGE  FOR  TROOPS  OF  THE  LINE. 

IV. — Opacity, 

9.  Perfect  opacity  under  all  conditions  of  light  and  background  can  only  be 
obtained  by  the  use  of  perfectly  opaque  material,  such  as  corrugated  iron. 

.  Even  thick  canvas  is  not  always  opaque,  e.  g.,  when  the  sun  is  low  and  behind 
it.  Usually  it  is  found  sufficient  to  provide  a  screen  that  is  sufficiently  opaque 
under  normal  conditions,  that  is  to  say,  one  which  hides  movement  from  any 
but  very  close  and  continuous  scrutiny. 

10.  The  screening  effect  is  much  influenced  by  background  and  angle  of 
view.    A  comparatively  transparent  screen  may  be  successful  if  the  background 

.  is  of  a  color  generally  similar  to  the  objects  to  be  screened,  is  broken  by  trees 
and  hedges,  or  is  viewed  from  an  angle  other  than  at  right  angles  to  its  surface. 
There  appears  to  be  little  difference  in  visibility  between  objects  20  yards  and 
100  yards  behind  a  screen,  though  an  object  5  yards  behind  it  is  more  easily 
seen  than  at  20  yards. 

11.  Unless  assisted  by  natural  accidents  of  environment,  it  is  necessary  that 
about  three-quarters  of  the  surface  of  a  screen  should  be  made  of  opaque 
material,  if  it  is  to  hide  movement  at  medium  ranges  (2,000  to  4,000  yards). 

V. — ViSIBIIJTY. 

12.  There  are  two  distinct  categories  of  screens : 

(a)  Those  which  must  be  obvious  to  the  enemy  as  screens. 
(&)  Camouflaged  screens,  designed  to  conceal  and  yet  to  escape  detection 
themselves. 

13.  These  latter  are  either  made  of — 

<i)  Solid  painted  canvas,  or  wire  netting  garnished  with  strips  of  canvas, 
l)rushwood,  grass,  etc.,  colored  in  patches  to  present  a  general  landscape  effect, 
-or  to  represent  hedges. 

(ii)  Solid  canvas  carefully  i>ainted  to  reproduce  a  definite  locality,  brick  wall, 
ruins,  and  such  like. 

14.  Painted  screens  can  rarely  serve  their  purpose  for  any  length  of  time, 
and  only  in  exceptional  cases  (where  they  are  not  required  for  more  than  a  few 
weeks)  are  worth  the  time  and  trouble  that  must  be  expended  on  their 
manufacture. 

15.  Their  defects  are: 

(a)  That  the  effect  obtained  by  painting  only  lasts  a  short  time  when  exposed 
to  weather,  and  does  not  vary  with  the  seasonal  changes  in  the  natural  sur- 
roundings. 

{h)  That  they  require  greater  care  in  construction,  and  more  maintenance, 
than  ordinary  screens,  and  are  highly  susceptible  to  damage  by  weather  and 
shell  fire. 

(c)  That  it  is  very  doubtful  whether  they  do  deceive  the  enemy.  Should  they 
not  do  so,  they  only  perform  the  function  of  an  ordinary  screen,  i.  e.,  that  of 
concealment,  but  have  taken  longer  to  construct. 

16.  It  must  be  noticed  that  camouflaged  screens  are  usually  erected  where 
they  are  liable  to  steady  direct  observation  as  opposed  to  the  comparatively 
fleeting  examination  from  aeroplanes  to  which  camouflage  gun  covers  are 
exposed. 

17.  The  following  are  examples  of  the  successful  use  of  camouflaged  screens : 
(a)  Work  on  exposed  battery  positions  about  1,800  yards  from  the  enemy's 

front  line  was  made  possible  by  the  erection  of  screens  composed  of  raffia  on 
wire  netting.  The  screens  were  mounted  on  wooden  trestles,  of  a  maximum 
height  of  10  feet.  These  enabled  the  raffia  netting  to  be  put  up  at  a  slope 
and  so  to  simulate  a  bank  or  false  crest.  The  extremities  of  the  screen  were 
sloped  gradually  to  the  ground  by  using  progressively  lower  trestles.     Both 


CAMOUFLAGE   FOR   TROOPS   OF   THE   LINE.  11 

front  and  back  slopes  were  furnished  with  raffia  netting,  in  order  to  get 
sufficient  thickness  to  conceal  flashes.  The  outline  of  the  top  of  the  screea 
was  made  to  conform  to  the  features  of  the  landscape  in  its  vicinity,  and  the 
slopes  were  gentle. 

(&)  In  another  instance  imitation  brick  walls  painted  on  canvas  backed  with 
wire  netting  were  erected  for  a  similar  purpose. 

(c)  Imitation  hedges  of  a  combination  of  raffia,  canvas  strips,  and  brush- 
wood on  wire  netting  were  made  to  conceal  a  battery  position,  which  otherwise 
would  have  been  under  direct  observation.  In  this  case  an  existing  hedge,  which 
was  in  the  rear  of  the  position,  from  behind  which  the  guns  were  unable 
to  fire,  was  removed  and  the  imitation  hedge  substituted  for  it  in  front  of  the 
guns. 

18.  It  is  a  general  experience  that  newly  erected  screens  are  shelled  by  the 
enemy  for  a  short  period,  but  that  he  soon  gives  up  firing  if  damage  is  repaired 
persistently. 

19.  A  good  example  of  this  is  afforded  by  the  screening  of  an  exposed  area 
on  the  British  front.  Over  7,000  yards  of  screening,  consisting  of  hay  bands 
interwoven  in  wire  netting,  were  erected,  but  no  attempt  was  made  to  render 
the  screen  inconspicuous.  It  was  shelled  to  some  extent,  but  any  damage 
caused  was  immediately  repaired.  The  screen  five  months  later  was  still 
fulfilling  its  purpose,  i.  e.,  that  of  concealing  what  went  on  behind  it. 

20.  The  following  are  examples  of  the  special  use  of  clearly  distinguishable 
screens : 

(a)  By  erecting  screens  in  front  of  a  line  on  a  portion  of  the  British  front, 
it  was  possible  to  employ  large  working  parties  by  day,  with  the  result  that 
there  was  a  considerable  increase  in  the  amount  of  work  done. 

(6)  At  another  spot  an  old  shattered  trench  was  made  practicable  for  the 
conveyance  of  wounded,  although  in  full  view  of  the  enemy,  by  the  erection 
of  a  screen  made  of  raffia  on  wire  netting  fastened  to  pickets  set  at  an  angle 
of  60°.  This  also  served  to  conceal  the  newly  excavated  chalk  thrown  up  in 
improving  the  trench. 

(c)  A  road  was  screened  by  utilizing  the  trees  which  had  been  felled  by  the 
enemy  in  retreat.  Strong  straight  limbs  to  serve  as  posts  were  erected  about 
every  18  feet,  with  10  feet  projecting  out  of  the  ground,  and  large  branches 
were  cut  off  and  stuck  upright  between  them.  Three  strands  of  plain  wire 
were  run  from  post  to  post  and  passed  through  the  branches  to  help  support 
them.  There  was  a  lot  of  dead  wood  about  on  both  sides  of  the  road.  The 
screen  was  effective  and  was  not  shelled. 

(d)  While  battery  positions  were  being  dug  a  screen  was  put  up  some  400 
yards  away  to  the  left.  "  It  afforded  the  enemy  much  amusement  and  usually 
drew  80  to  100  rounds  of  4.2-inch  a  day  from  him.  The  battery  positions  were 
left  in  comparative  quiet." 

(e)  A  screen  about  600  yards  long  and  full  16  feet  high,  made  of  hop  poles, 
with  brown  canvas  strips,  painted  here  and  there  with  big  patches  of  black  and 
green,  and  of  sewn-on  w^idths  of  wire  netting,  which  were  hung  from  five 
horizontal  wires,  was  erected  to  screen  some  guns.  It  was  put  up  a  month 
before  it  was  wanted.  The  enemy  shelled  it  for  a  week  or  two,  but  after 
breaking  two  poles,  which  were  repaired  at  night,  desisted. 

21.  There  is  no  doubt  if  screening  is  carried  out  on  a  comprehensive  scale, 
and  with  a  continuous  policy,  that  localities  which  would  normally  be  under 
observation,  and  subject  to  deliberate  shelling,  become  practically  immune  from 
it.  This  immunity  does  not  depend  upon  the  invisibility  of  the  screens  erected, 
but  on  their  distribution.  From  ranges  of  4,500  yards  and  under  there  is  little 
difficulty  in  picking  up  the  various  types  of  screening  ordinarily  used.     In 


12  CAMOUFLAGE  FOR  TROOPS  OF  THE  LINE. 

every  case,  however,  before  a  scheme  of  screening  is  settled,  the  ground  should 
be  carefully  reconnoitered  to  be  sure  that  every  advantage  is  taken  of  its 
natural  features,  and  to  ensure,  as  far  as  possible,  that  there  is  assimilation 
of  color  to  local  surroundings  and  background.  Straight  lines  are  usually 
more  easily  distinguishable  than  broken  ones,  so  that  irregularity  of  the  top 
of  the  screens  may  be  of  value.  Some  screens  along  a  road  drew  fire  probably 
because  they  ended  abruptly  instead  of  sloping  gradually  away  to  the  ground. 

22.  It  is  advisable  to  consider  well  beforehand  in  the  summer  months  what 
screens  will  be  required  in  the  winter  after  the  leaves  are  off  the  trees,  and  to 
have  them  erected  before  the  natural  cover  disappears. 

VI. — Siting  of  Road  Screens. 

23.  Roads  running  perpendicular  to  the  front  line  are  best  screened  by  hang- 
ing vertical  screens  between  trees  or  houses,  or  poles,  across  the  road. 

24.  In  the  case  of  roads  running  parallel,  or  more  or  less  parallel,  -with  the 
front  line,  it  is  advisable,  when  possible,  to  site  the  screens  at  least  50  yards 
from  the  edge,  in  order  that  shell  fire  directed  at  the  screens  shall  not  cause 
damage  on  the  road  and  vice  versa. 

25.  Such  road  screens  may  require  to  be  made  specially  high ;  but  at  the  same 
time,  the  lower  edge  can  usually  be  some  distance  above  the  ground. 

26.  Short  lengths,  of  about  30  yards,  placed  en  Echelon  and  overlapping  each 
other,  are  preferable  to  long  continuous  lengths.  This  method  permits  of 
plenty  of  passageways,  and  limits  damage  by  shell  fire;  and  further,  the  line 
of  route  screened,  not  being  defined,  becomes  difficult  to  range  on. 

27.  Roads  at  an  angle  to  the  front  can  be  concealed  by  screens  facing  the 
front  arranged  en  Echelon. 

VII. — Flash  Screens. 

28.  Screens  have  been  successfully  used  to  hide  gun  flashes  at  night  from  the 
front  and  from  a  flank. 

29.  In  one  case  where  the  flashes  were  visible  from  a  flank,  a  long  solid  canvas 
screen  (painted  a  dark  color)  was  placed  50  to  100  yards  on  the  right  front  of 
the  battery.  This  was  found  difficult  to  maintain,  and  six  small  screens  were 
substituted,  one  about  4  yards  to  the  right  of  the  muzzle  of  each  gun,  and  run- 
ning out  about  8  yards  to  the  front.  They  were  about  8  feet  high,  of  which 
only  the  top  6  feet  were  canvas.  They  were  dismantled  during  the  day  and  re- 
erected  each  night,  in  socketed  holes. 

Screens  of  the  type  above  described  will  naturally  be  manufactured  in  depots 
and  issued  to  working  parties  whose  duty  it  is  to  erect  them,  generally  under 
the  superintendence  of  the  camouflage  officer,  but  the  principles  are  so  simple 
that  no  officer  should  wait  for  specially  trained  men  to  do  the  work,  and  if  no 
material  is  issued  it  should  be  improvised. 

CONCEALMENT  BY   MIMICRY   OR   SIMULATION. 

Concealment  of  a  position  or  of  any  object  by  covering  it  or  col- 
oring it  to  represent  natural  objects,  while  always  desirable,  is  prac- 
ticable only  where  the  areas  of  objects  are  small  in  proportion  to 
the  number  of  men  employed  on  their  concealment. 

Trenches. 

It  is  quite  generally  stated  that  it  is  impossible  to  conceal  trenches 
from  discovery  by  the  enemy,  especially  when  the  opposing  trench 
systems  are  close  together.    This  may  be  the  case,  but  it  is  certainly 


CAMOUFLAGE   FOR  TROOPS   OF   THE  LINE.  13 

possible  to  construct  the  trenches  so  as  to  make  them  far  less  con- 
spicuous than  they  ordinarily  are,  and  it  is  quite  possible  to  construct 
trenches,  the  exact  location  of  which  can  not  be  determined  from  the 
opposite  front-line  trenches.  This  will  make  it  much  more  difficult 
to  properly  observe  the  effect  of  artillery  fire  upon  a  trench  except 
by  aeroplane  and  will  make  the  trench  a  much  less  conspicuous  mark 
for  machine  gun  and  rifle  fire. 

In  the  first  place  the  parados  should  always  be  higher  than  the 
parapet,  and  neither  should  have  a  regular  outline,  for  if  the  parapet 
is  higher  than  the  parados,  a  man's  head  and  shoulders  are  silhouetted 
against  the  sky  (unless  the  fire  is  through  loopholes  only),  and  he  is 
readily  observed.  If  the  parados  is  higher  than  the  parapet,  a  man 
with  a  sniper's  helmet  designed  to  simulate  the  earth  in  that  locality 
can  move  up  and  down  without  being  observed.  It  was  found  through 
experimental  work  that  if  the  parapet  and  parados  both  be  of 
irregular  outline  and  covered  with  mats  or  planted  with  tall  grass  or 
brush,  a  man  with  a  sniper's  helmet,  covered  with  grass,  can  not  be 
seen,  even  in  motion,  at  a  distance  of  30  feet.  Lighting  conditions, 
however,  have  a  good  deal  to  do  with  visibility.  In  trenches  which 
are  particularly  important,  the  parapet  and  parados  should  be  sodded 
or  covered  with  imitation  grass  mats  of  fireproof  material.  The 
transplanting  of  a  very  few  clods  of  turf,  or  the  planting  of  quick- 
growing  weeds,  or  both,  will  enormously  decrease  visibility.  If  a 
trench  can  be  so  constructed  that  the  parapet  is  composed  of  a  series 
of  mounds,  between  which  ordinarily  defilade  fire  only  would  be 
possible,  men  in  the  trench  would  be  much  less  liable  to  observation. 
If  the  parapet  be  irregular,  machine  guns  can  not  be  set  to  sweep  it 
at  night,  nor  can  fixed  rifle  rests  be  set  with  accuracy. 

New  trenches  in  permanent  positions  can  to  advantage  be  dug 
under  camouflage  covering.  Supports  are  placed  on  the  ground, 
the  ends  extending  well  past  the  edges  of  the  proposed  trench,  cov- 
ered with  mosquito  netting,  painted  to  the  color  of  the  surroundings, 
and  occasionally  dressed  with  clods  of  turf  or  earth.  The  trench 
is  then  excavated  below,  leaving  the  cover  intact  until  such  time  as 
it  is  desired  to  remove  it. 

It  is  obvious  that  this  form  of  trench  digging  can  not  be  employed 
except  w^hen  there  is  sufficient  time  for  the  trench  to  be  excavated 
from  a  few  fixed  points  and  the  dirt  removed.  It  has  advantages 
over  a  tunnel  in  that  no  artificial  light  is  needed,  and  that  it  can  be 
readily  converted  into  a  fire  trench.    Also  ventilation  is  always  good. 

Overhead  coverings  for  existing  trenches  can  be  made  in  a  similar 
manner  or  can  be  of  chicken  wire  knotted  with  raffia  or  similar  ma- 
terial. It  must  not  be  thought  that  camouflage  is  worthless  if  dis- 
covered. It  makes  range  finding  difficult  and  spotting  of  artillery 
fire  harder.    It  is  obviously  impractical  to  cover  entire  systems  for 


14  CAMOUFLAGE  FOR  TROOPS  OF  THE  LINE. 

concealment  from  aerial  observation,  but  it  is  not  impossible  to  com- 
pletely conceal  from  aerial  observation  positions  of  trenches  which 
it  is  especially  desirable  to  conceal  as  may  be  seen  from  the  captured 
German  report  below  quoted : 

Observations  made  in  tlie  tliree  corps  have  sliown  that  in  the  present  state 
of  our  aerial  photography  trenches  and  similar  works  can  be  hidden  from  view 
only  by  means  of  a  well-made  screen  of  brush  in  great  quantities,  or  by  cover- 
ing them  completely  and  adapting  the  covering  to  the  surroundings. 

On  account  of  the  considerable  labor  involved  and  the  great  quantity  of  ma- 
terial necessary  to  produce  the  desired  effect,  complete  camouflage,  preventing 
aerial  photography,  can  be  supplied  only  to  small  works,  cover  for  single  guns, 
machine  guns,  etc. 

In  spite  of  this,  it  is  nevertheless  important  to  continue  to  require  that  all 
works  be  concealed  from  observation  both  from  the  ground  and  from  captive 
balloons.  Also,  in  my  opinion,  it  is  necessary  that  in  all  works,  constructed  in 
the  rear,  the  earth  removed  be  entirely  blended  with  the  surroundings. 

Aerial  photographs  will  then  show  the  great  value  of  sinmlated  or  dummy 
works. 

As  the  French,  in  their  recent  attacks,  have  systematically  bombarded  roads 
of  approach,  it  would  be  useful  in  order  to  disseminate  the  fire  of  the  enemy  to 
likewise  make  false  roads  of  approach. 

Gun  Positions. 

There  is  probably  no  military  activity  which  has  been  so  system- 
atically concealed  by  all  the  armies  engaged  in  the  present  war  as 
the  gun  positions,  and  these  are  in  the  main  concealed  by  the  bat- 
teries themselves.  Capt.  Colby,  of  the  Belgian  Artillery,  states  as 
follows : 

Camouflage  should  in  general  be  constructed  before  the  battery  is  placed,  and 
each  battery  should  carry  with  it  a  sufllcient  amount  of  material  to  roughly 
camouflage  their  positions.  Of  course  the  positions  for  very  heavy  guns  must 
be  necessarily  placed  some  time  in  advance  in  camouflage  of  especially  careful 
construction  and  under  the  supervision  of  camouflage  men.  In  all  light  bat- 
teries the  artillery  men  should  be  prepared  to  construct  their  camouflage  for 
themselves. 

Each  battery  should  be  provided  with  the  following  mobile  camouflage  as 
part  of  its  equipment,  i.  e.,  6  nets  and  6  thin  tarpaulins,  for  field  batteries  8 
yards  square,  for  heavier  pieces  about  160  square  yards  in  area  and  divided 
into  convenient  strips.  The  nets  or  strips  should  be  folded,  placed  in  sacks,  and 
carried  on  the  limbers  and  caissons  as  seats  for  the  carriers.  Folding  umbrella- 
shaped  supports  (from  5  to  12,  according  to  the  size  of  the  net)  should  be 
carried  as  well.  The  weight  for  a  net,  8  yards  square,  is  from  10  to  15  kilos. 
Batteries  should  also  be  issued  different-colored  paints  as  required  for  color 
camouflage. 

Every  battery  should  be  provided  with  camouflage  nets  issued  by  the  camou- 
flage section,  one  net  with  supports  being  issued  for  each  section. 

These  issue  nets  should  be  supplemented  by  tarpaulins  of  light  burlap  in 
broken  coloration.  When  the  battery  is  forced  to  come  into  position  without  a 
prearranged  emplacement,  it  may  be  provisionally  concealed  by  this  portable 
camouflage.  When  time  allows  the  emplacements  should  be  made  beforehand, 
under  cover  of  the  same  camouflage.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that,  although 
the  nets  continue  the  general  aspect  of  the  country,  they  do  not  prevent  white 
sandbags  and  new  earth  and  particularly  concrete  from  being  visible  in  aero- 
plane photographs.     It  is  therefore  necessary  to  cover  work  of  this  kind  with 


CAMOUFLAGE  FOR  TROOPS   OF   THE  LINE.  15 

the  burlap  tarpaulins  and  again  camouflage  these  tarpaulins  with  the  nets.  If 
nets  are  not  available,  branches  of  trees,  grass,  and  bushes  should  be  used.  The 
nets  must  rest  on  umbrellalike  supports  or  on  poles  so  that  they  do  not  follow 
the  form  of  the  construction. 

All  this  material  can  be  made  here  in  France  with  great  rapidity  and  its 
immediate  issue  to  batteries  should  be  insisted  on  by  the  artillery. 

For  heavy  guns  probably  the  best  camouflage  is  one  which  is  en- 
tirely natural  and  this  work  should  be  completed  before  the  batteries 
are  placed.  Nor  should  the  batteries  be  placed  until  the  command- 
ing officer  is  reasonably  certain,  both  by  observation  from  his  own 
planes  and  because  of  the  indifference  of  the  enemy,  that  the  camou- 
flage is  successful. 

As  giving  an  example  of  faulty  camouflage,  we  were  shown  an  aerial  photo- 
graph which  was  taken  behind  the  German  lines  at  St.  Hilaire  le  Petit,  in  front 
of  Chalons,  on  i^pril  15,  1915.  This  photograph  showed  a  clearing  which  had 
recently  been  made  about  5  kilometers  behind  the  lines,  with  a  small  field 
railway  line  leading  up  to  it.  The  clearing  in  question  was  about  100  feet 
square.  The  fact  of  this  clearing  with  a  railway  line  leading  to  it  made  the 
French  suspicious,  and  the  point  was  subsequently  watched  very  carefully. 
About  July  1,  the  aerial  photograph  showed  this  clearing  as  well  as  the  con- 
necting line  of  railway,  gradually  disappearing,  the  Germans  evidently  plant- 
ing trees  and  erecting  screens  to  cover  it.  About  September  1  some  6  or  8 
long-range  projectiles  from  a  380-millimeter  German  naval  gun  were  ftred  by 
the  Germans  Into  Chalons,  a  distance  of  32  kilometers  from  the  point  of  this 
clearing.  The  French  immediately  concentrated  heavy  gun  fire  on  the  clear- 
ing shown  by  the  original  photograph,  and  artillery  fire  on  Chalons,  since  that 
date,  has  stopped. 

The  criticism  of  the  German  camouflage  in  this  instance  is  that  they  should 
not  have  made  the  original  clearing,  which  was  at  once  discovered,  but  should, 
on  the  other  hand,  have  made  their  emplacement  and  mounted  the  gun  after  the 
camouflage  had  been  erected  in  the  position  concealed.  Naturally  by  sound 
ranging,  the  position  of  the  gun  would  ultimately  have  been  determined,  but 
this  would  have  taken  time,  and  the  damage  in  Chalons  would  have  been  much 
greater. 

Aetilleey  in  the  Open. 

It  has  been  repeatedly  stated  that  camouflage  loses  its  utility  when 
open  warfare  is  begun.  From  the  few  attempts  which  have 
been  made  to  utilize  camouflage  in  open  warfare,  it  would  appear 
that  this  is  not  the  case. 

Capt.  Gushing  Darnell,  E,.  F.  A.,  states : 

During  the  battle  of  Vimy  Ridge  the  first  English  field  artillery  brigade  was 
ordered  forward  as  soon  as  the  Lille-Arras  road  had  been  sufficiently  repaired. 
I  met  the  brigade  commander  in  Vimy  Station.  He  selected  an  open  field,  just 
back  of  the  railroad  embankment,  to  put  four  of  the  batteries  of  his  brigade. 
There  w^ere  no  trees  or  bushes  within  a  thousand  yards  of  the  place  where  the 
guns  were  to  go  into  action. 

The  Germans  were  shelling  the  Lille-Arras  road  with  5.9s,  so  that  the  brigade 
could  only  move  forward  after  dark.  I  brought  the  battery  into  action  at  10 
o'clock  on  a  dark,  rainy  night.  The  guns  were  put  just  back  of  the  railroad 
embankment  and  400  rounds  of  ammunition  dumped  beside  them.  The  amount 
of  camouflage  possessed  by  the  battery  was  limited  to  six  strips  of  chicken  wire 
6  by  20  feet,  in  which  pieces  of  painted  burlap  had  been  woven  to  give  the 
effect  of  grass  and  reeds.  Having  used  all  our  camouflage  to  cover  the  guns, 
the  pits  dug  for  the  men  had  to  be  covered  up  by  ground  sheets. 


16  CAMOUFLAGE  FOR  TROOPS  OF  THE  LINE. 

At  6.30  the  next  morning  the  German  planes  came  over,  and  at  6.45  their 
batteries  opened  on  the  field.  The  battery  immediately  behind  my  battery  had 
been  careless  enough  to  go  into  action  without  any  attempt  to  cover  up  their 
guns  with  camouflage,  and  because  of  this  they  were  spotted  by  the  German 
planes  and  heavily  shelled.  Their  casualties  were  so  heavy  that  they  had  to 
move  the  battery  to  another  position. 

The  position  of  O.  P.'s  for  batteries  in  action  in  the  open  present  the  same 
opportunities  for  the  use  of  camouflage.  The  fire  of  battei'ies  in  95  per  cent 
of  the  engagements  to-day  is  indirect.  With  the  exception  of  the  few  days  of 
an  advance  immediately  following  a  successful  offensive,  the  field  batteries 
can  not  be  said  to  be  in  action  in  the  open.  The  German  observation  from 
the  air  is  so  clever  and  accurate  that  the  battery  commander  always  tries  to 
get  cover  over  his  guns  at  the  earliest  possible  moment. 

During  the  offensive  in  the  Balkans,  in  the  spring  of  1916,  it  was  necessary 
to  move  our  battery  as  rapidly  as  the  mountain  roads  would  permit.  The 
transport  had  broken  down.  We  had  no  camouflage.  Branches  of  trees, 
bushes,  reeds  from  the  lak,e  shore,  anc?  bits  of  blankets  painted  in  earth  colors 
were  used. 

It  is  being  strongly  advised  not  to  allow  batteries  to  go  forward  in  the  open 
without  a  certain  amount  of  camouflage  to  render  their  work  less  dangerous. 
A  battery  in  the  open  that  is  not  protected  in  any  way  by  camouflage  is  bound 
to  be  shelled  very  heavily. 

In  this  connection  it  may  be  said  that  the  use  of  natural  objects  is 
invariably  better  than  artificial  imitation  of  natural  objects.  Paint 
can  never  completely  imitate  earth  and  may  photograph  in  an  en- 
tirely different  way.  And  while  artificial  grass  or  painted  screens 
may  temporarily  deceive,  the  only  permanent  concealment  will  be 
made  from  the  same  objects  as  those  surrounding. 

CAMOUFLAGE  BY  DISTRACTION. 

It  is  obvious  that  if  a  dummy  and  an  actual  gun  position  are 
simultaneously  erected  and  both  become  known,  and  the  dummy 
position  is  well  enough  constructed  to  lead  the  enemy  to  believe 
that  it  is  a  real  position,  to  destroy  the  real  position  will  need  twice 
as  many  shells  as  if  it  alone  were  discovered,  since  the  enemy  can  not 
afford  to  take  chances  that  the  dummy  position  will  be  unoccupied. 
If  only  the  dummy  position  is  discovered,  the  actual  position  will  be 
perfectly  safe.  Successful  camouflage  of  gun  positions  or  of  any 
position  which  is  active,  can  not  be  done  by  concealment  alone,  since 
the  enemy  will  realize  by  sound  ranging  or  flash  ranging  that  there 
is  a  battery  in  operation  in  that  vicinity,  and  if  their  attention  is  not 
directed  to  a  false  position,  they  will  eventually  search  out  the  true 
position.  One  must  be  careful,  however,  in  erecting  a  false  battery 
or  a  false  trench  to  see  that  it  is  not  obviously  false.  The  dummy 
position  must  be  camouflaged  on  correct  principles,  but  it  must  be 
revealed  as  if  through  carelessness  of  the  men  executing  the  work 
or  through  lack  of  camouflage  discipline  (of  which  more  later). 
The  same  thing  is  true  of  trenches.  At  the  beginning  of  the  war  both 
sides  werQ  content  to  build  dummy  trenches  only  a  few  inches  deep 
and  to  leave  them  without  visible  signs  of  movement.    These  trenches 


CAMOUFLAGE  FOR  TROOPS  OF  THE  LINE.  17 

were  instantly  discovered  to  be  dummy ;  in  the  first  place  by  lack  of 
shadows,  and  in  the  second  place  because  they  did  not  change  their 
configurations  as  do  occupied  trenches.  On  constructing  dummy 
trenches,  it  is  essential  in  the  first  place  to  make  them  deep  enough  to 
cast  a  shadow  over  the  entire  bottom  of  the  trench  and  in  the  second 
place  to  keep  altering  or  revising  them,  and  if  they  are  shelled,  to 
repair  damage.  In  the  same  way  screens  may  be  erected  for  no  par- 
ticular purpose  except  to  draw  fire  which  would  otherwise  be  utilized 
upon  important  points,  and  if  these  screens  can  be  so  constructed  as 
to  arouse  the  enemy's  curiosity  and  invite  his  attention,  far  more  im- 
portant objects  may  go  unscathed.  It  is  essential  that  false  positions 
present  the  characteristics  of  real  ones. 
From  Capt.  Colby: 

I  remember  two  instances  on  this  point.  In  1915  we  replaced  a  very  heavy- 
piece  of  artillery  by  a  wooden  imitation;  no  proper  attempt,  however,  was 
made  to  conceal  this  piece  and  the  enemy  never  fired  a  shot  at  it,  although  he 
had  frequently  bombarded  the  real  gun.  Last  year  a  fake  gun  of  large  caliber 
was  placed  at  a  short  distance  from  the  real  gun  and  was  clumsily  camou- 
flaged. The  enemy  promptly  counterbatteried  the  piece  with  a  large  number  of 
projectiles  and  continued  to  do  so. 

The  fake  position  should  be  made  to  appear  to  fire  with  visible  flashes,  at 
the  same  time  that  the  real  battery  is  in  action  with  its  flashes  as  far  aS 
possible  concealed.  Flash  apparatus  may  easily  be  improvised,  using  the 
powder  sacks  which  are  discarded  by  the  howitzers  when  firing  with  reduced 
charges. 

The  camouflage  service  will  provide  dummy  guns  with  flash  ap- 
paratus where  needed. 

As  much  of  the  information  which  the  enemy  possesses  as  to  troop 
movement  is  made  from  indications  based  on  aerial  photographs 
as  to  the  use  of  roads,  false  roads  or  artificial  w^idening  of  old  roads 
will  distract  his  attention  from  the  roads  most  in  use.  The  constant 
passing  of  trucks  and  troops,  if  along  a  well-bounded  road,  will  in 
the  end  widen  it  to  a  considerable  extent,  and  it  is  probable  that  no 
amount  of  camouflage  discipline  will  entirely  overcome  this  tend- 
ency. On  the  other  hand,  artifical  widening  of  roads  will  lead  the 
enemy  to  believe  that  a  movement  in  force  is  intended  where  none 
is  actually  contemplated,  or  that  natural  movement  is  proceeding 
in  some  direction  other  than  the  correct  one.  As  the  general  loca- 
tion of  ammunition  dumps,  etc.,  is  necessarily  revealed  by  the  amount 
of  traffic  in  their  direction,  everything  which  can  be  done  to  lead 
the  enemy  to  believe  that  supplies  are  being  brought  elsewhere  is  of 
value,  and  this  can  be  most  readily  done  by  false  roads  or  by  widen- 
ing of  old  roads.  Gun  positions  are  very  frequently  revealed  by 
portable  railway,  and  as  portable  railway  is  almost  impossible  to 
entirely  conceal,  camouflage  by  distraction  must  be  resorted  to. 

As  giving  another  example  of  a  somewhat  similar  case,  where  the  camouflage 
idea  was  effectively  carried  out,  the  French  made  arrangements  to  place  a  large 
caliber  gun  in  position  at  a  certain  point.     For  this  purpose,  they  made  a 


18  CAMOUFLAGE  FOR  TROOPS  OF  THE  LINE. 

clearing  for  a  narrow-gauge  railway,  1,500  meters  in  length.  Of  this  distance 
only  700  meters  of  iron  track  was  put  in.  The  balance  of  the  clearing  was 
tracked  with  wooden  rails.  From  the  end  of  the  iron  rails  a  branch  line,  300 
meters  in  length,  was  constructed  at  right  angles  through  the  clearing,  covered 
with  camouflage  screening,  and  at  the  end  of  this  latter  line  the  gun  was 
mounted.  When  the  firing  of  the  French  piece  began,  the  Germans  at  once 
opened  fire  in  the  vicinity  of  the  end  of  the  wooden  track  and  the  actual  position 
of  the  gun  was  not  determined  by  the  Germans.  This  is  an  example  of  proper 
camouflage  precautions. 

Section  2.— CAMOUFLAGE  DISCIPLINE. 

Much  work  which  is  admirably  concealed  is  discovered  and 
destroyed  because  its  presence  is  revealed  by  tell-tale  movements 
recorded  upon  the  earth  and  plainly  observable  in  aeroplane  photo- 
graphs, and  it  is  absolutely  necessary  that  all  troops  should  be  in- 
formed of  the  necessity  and  value  of  care  in  walking  about  or  in 
moving  vehicles. 

The  head  of  the  British  Military  Mission  stated  that  the  principal 
difficulty  with  camouflage  in  the  English  Army  was  that  the  men 
did  not  take  the  trouble  to  use  it,  and  a  very  great  proportion  of 
English  casualties  was  due  to  the  carelessness  of  the  men  in  this 
respect.  A  captured  German  report  signed  by  Schott,  Lieutenant  of 
Eeserve,  32d  Feldfliegerabteilung,  treating  of  the  hiding  of  artillery 
implements  from  aeroplane  observation,  states  as  follows : 

(a)  Batteries  best  sheltered  from  observation  are  found  along  roads.  Cross- 
roads lend  themselves  to  this  best ;  there  the  shelter  of  the  piece  will  be  notched 
in  banks.  The  notch  can  be  covered  with  planks  and  earth.  All  traffic  is 
revealed  very  clearly  upon  photographs  of  artillery  positions  in  the  open  by 
the  clear  tracks  resulting  from  the  passage  of  wagons  and  troops  in  place  of, 
in  this  case,  on  an  already  existing  road. 

From  this  it  results  that — 

(&)  The  installation  of  batteries  on  slopes  in  terraces  Is  likewise  very  favor- 
able. But  in  this  case  it  is  necessary  to  note  that  the  transport  of  the  battery 
should  not  operate  perpendicular  to  the  direction  of  the  slope,  for  the  abrupt 
termination  of  the  wheel  traces  along  the  slope  always  reveals  an  artillery 
position. 

It  is  preferable  that  all  circulation  takes  place  directly  behind  the  slope 
and  in  its  direction.  In  most  cases  it  will  be  difficult  to  distinguish  on  the 
photograph  the  wheel  tracks  from  the  shadow  of  the  slope. 

(c)  Most  often  artillery  is  revealed  by  the  radiating  tracks.  Tracks  which 
end  abruptly  in  a  fan  shape  are  clearly  discernible  on  photographs.  At  each 
track  end  there  appears  clearly  an  emplacement  in  semicircular  form.  From 
this  it  results  that  the  approach  roads  should  be  effaced  to  at  least  300  yards 
in  rear  by  means  of  plowing  and  harrowing.  At  the  end  of  the  existing  wagon 
road  is  installed,  as  often  as  possible,  a  false  battery  with  radiating  wheel 
tracks.  The  foot  path  leading  from  the  false  battery  to  the  position  occupied 
need  not  be  direct  in  any  particular  case. 

Organization  of  Dummy  Batteries. 

It  results  from  the  preceding  that  on  photographs  false  batteries  are,  at  the 
first  glance,  easy  to  distinguish  from  positions,  when  it  is  considered  sufficient  to 
simply  build  the  false  emplacements  and  leave  as  it  is  the  surrounding  ground, 
especially  behind  the  position,  as  happens  so  frequently,  so  that  the  false  po- 
sition appears  on  the  photograph  to  be  deprived  of  movement.    That  is  why  it 


CAMOUFLAGE  FOR  TROOPS   OF  THE  LINE.  19 

is  strictly  necessary  that  behind  every  false  battery  tracks  should  be  kept  fresh 
by  making  the  supply  trains  pass  over  them  from  time  to  time,  as  often  as  pos- 
sible, preferably  after  a  rain,  and  in  a  direction  well  considered,  according  to 
an  established  plan. 

A  haphazard  circulation  of  traffic  behind  the  position  without  following  a 
piredetermined  road  does  not  deceive  the  adversary  sufficiently. 

A  French  report  reads  as  follows: 

Teacks. 

Aside  from  cannon  and  machine  guns  entirely  sheltered  in  trenches,  the 
whole  defensive  organization  of  an  army  is  visible.  The  first  thing  that  is 
noticed  on  a  photograph  is  the  tracks.  The  number,  their  direction,  their 
ramifications,  their  points  of  departure  and  arrival  give  many  valuable  indica- 
tions. They  end  at  revictualing  points,  batteries  and  communicating  trenches. 
By  their  number  and  their  importance  they  give  an  idea  of  the  life  of  a  sector ; 
they  reveal  the  activity  of  a  battery  and  the  traffic  at  a  revictualing  point,  etc. 

On  a  panoramic  photograph,  the  ensemble  of  tracks  shows  very  well  the 
extent  of  the  different  sectors,  and  enables  one  to  determine  them  (the  sectors). 
The  suppression  of  tracks  is,  therefore,  of  vital  importance.  It  is  necessary  to 
distinguish  between  two  sorts  of  tracks:  those  followed  by  men  and  those 
traveled  over  by  wagons. 

The  most  simple  means  of  avoiding  tracks  made  by  men  is  to  make  thean 
follow  the  borders  of  cultivation,  the  perimeter  of  fields.  Indeed,  every  path 
which  cuts  across  one  or  more  fields  in  any  direction  strikes  the  notice  of  the 
observer,  and  in  following  its  trace  the  observer  arrives  at  the  work  which  it 
serves.  On  the  contrary,  a  path  which  follows  the  limits  of  fields,  turning 
at  the  angles  without  rounding  off  where  fields  overlap,  will  not  show  up  on  a 
photograph.  If  the  maps  that  are  used  for  the  identification  of  the  photo- 
graph show  the  limits  of  the  fields,  it  will  be  extremely  difficult,  if  not  im- 
possible, to  discern  whether  or  not  such  a  path  is  prior  to  the  date  of  occupa- 
tion by  the  troops. 

In  order  to  retain  the  vertices  and  the  angles  of  the  fields,  a  few  low  pickets 
help  to  guide  the  men.  In  regions  where  sand  does  not  permit  cultivation,  this 
treatment  is  evidently  impracticable,  but  on  account  of  its  very  nature  (rocks, 
stones,  etc.)  paths  do  not  leave  traces. 

In  the  case  of  a  short  covering  of  grass  it  is  necessary  to  trample  soil  over 
a  large  area,  indicating  the  path  by  pickets.  The  tracks  made  by  wagons 
have,  in  general,  only  a  limited  width.  It  would  then  be  necessary,  for  these 
short  distances,  to  cover  the  ground  (following  always,  by  preference,  the 
limits  of  fields)  with  a  flooring  of  planks  having  irregular  edges  painted 
the  color  of  the  field.  One  could  thus  cover  the  path  with  stones  and  sand, 
widening  it  out  up  to  one  edge  of  cultivation  in  order  to  give  it  the  appearance 
of  a  separate  piece  of  terrain.  Restrict  the  routes  and  paths  to  get  to  watering 
places  or  to  rivers  in  order  to  avoid  tracks. 

Batteries. 

Even  after  a  battery  emplacement  has  been  located  on  a  photograph,  or  by 
aerial  observation,  it  is  very  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  know  whether 
or  not  it  is  occupied,  or  whether  or  not  the  pieces  that  can  be  perceived 
there  are  false.  It  is  then  obvious  that  dummy  guns  will  be  placed  every- 
where where  there  is  an  unoccupied  or  abandoned  battery  emplacement. 

The  things  that  show  that  an  emplacement  has  been  recently  occupied  are: 
(1)  The  erosion  of  the  soil  in  front  of  each  piece,  the  erosion  due  to  the  blast 
of  the  cannon  during  fire;  (2)  the  freshness  of  tracks  leading  to  the  pieces. 

The  erosion  of  the  ground  in  nearly  all  localities  is  manifested  by  a  white 
speckled  spot  in  front  of  the  mouth  of  the  piece.     By  spreading  iron  dust 


20  CAMOUFLAGE  FOR  TROOPS  OF  THE  LUSTE. 

on  the  ground  that  is  thus  stirred  up,  it  will  be  impossible  for  the  observer 
to  tell  what  it  is.  The  photograph  will  be  equally  silent.  Another  method 
consists  in  paving  with  bricks  or  cement  the  part  exposed  to  the  blast  in  front 
of  the  mouth  of  the  cannon,  this  coating  being  painted  the  color  of  the 
surrounding  ground.     Suppress  paths. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  supplement  these  quotations.  They  are  sufficient 
to  prove  that  camouflage  discipline  is  as  valuable  as  concealment.  The 
chief  of  the  British  aerial  photographic  section  states  that  in  the  case  of 
photographs  taken  at  great  heights  the  nature  of  objects  is  rarely  discernible 
from  the  photograph  of  the  object.  It  is  generally  discovered  by  indications 
on  the  surrounding  ground,  of  which  the  principal  are  tracks  or  paths.  A 
French  artillery  officer  says  that  no  batterj'  commander  should  ever  permit 
trucks  to  turn  around  directly  opposite  his  position.  He  was  asked  whether 
a  sentry  should  be  posted  to  enforce  this  regulation.  He  replied,  "  Some  people 
use  sentries ;  me,  I  use  a  little  piece  of  barb  wire." 

Section  3.— SPECIAL  CASES. 

BUILOINGS   AND    SHADOvVS. 

The  camouflage  of  buildings  from  horizontal  observation  is  a 
problem  for  the  trained  camouflage  forces,  and  buildings  which  are 
of  any  military  importance  and  which  are  in  view  from  the  front, 
either  from  observation  posts  or  from  kite  balloons,  will  not  long 
exist.  Buildings  which  are  protected  from  direct  observation  will 
be  discovered  only  by  means  of  aerial  observation  and  are  revealed 
chiefly  by  their  shadows.  Buildings  should,  therefore,  be  located  as 
far  as  possible  either  where  they  will  cast  no  shadow,  as  on  the  north 
side  of  steep  hills  or  high  banks,  or  where  their  shadows  will  be 
broken  by  tree  shadows.    It  follows  then : 

The  siting  of  buildings  is  the  most  important  element  in  their 
camouflage,  for  it  can  be  regarded  as  practically  impossible  to  con- 
ceal buildings  from  aerial  photograph  unless  their  shadows  may  be 
concealed.  No  satisfactory  method  of  eliminating  shadows  has  yet 
been  found.  This  should  be  very  carefully  remembered  by  engineer 
officers  in  charge  of  construction. 

Since  construction  can  not  be  done  instantly,  it  follows  that  all 
buildings  are  liable  to  be  discovered  before  they  are  camouflaged. 
But  this  does  not  destroy  the  importance  of  camouflage,  especially 
against  bomb  dropping,  since  a  building  may  be  accurately  located 
on  a  map  and  still  difficult  to  discover  from  the  air.  It  is  suggested 
that  in  order  that  the  time  that  buildings  are  exposed  to  observation 
may  be  as  brief  as  possible,  that  ready  painted  roofs  be  used,  that 
the  roofs  be  constructed  as  early  as  may  be,  and  the  balance  of  the 
construction  finished  later,  or  that  portable  buildings  be  used  wher- 
ever possible.  It  must  be  remembered  that  aerial  observation  is  not 
dependent  upon  a  single  photograph  but  that  photographs  made  at 
intervals  of,  say,  60  feet,  and  examined  through  a  stereoscope  magnify 
the  apparent  height  of  a  building  from  8  to  10  times.  The  build- 
ings should,  therefore,  be  reduced  to  the  lowest  possible  vertical 
dimensions ;  all  shadows  from  cornices  or  eaves  should  be  suppressed ; 


CAMOUFLAGE  FOR  TROOPS  OF  THE  LINE.  21 

regular  outline  should  be  eliminated  as  far  as  may  be,  and  artificial 
silhouettes  should  be  applied  to  the  edges  of  roofs  in  order  to  cast 
irregular  shadows  and  therefore  confuse  the  observer.  A  French 
suggestion  is  to  color  the  ground  on  which  shadows  are  cast,  dark, 
with  broken  patches  of  black  or  dark  color  upon  the  roofs.  This 
may  sometimes  be  of  assistance  and  should  not  be  neglected,  but  no 
color  is  as  dark  as  shadows  and  will  not  always  be  effective. 

The  coloring  of  roofs  and  of  buildings  in  general  should  simulate 
the  natural  colors  of  the  surrounding  country  as  viewed  from  a 
height  of  not  less  than  3,000  feet.  Aerial  observation  should  ac- 
company every  important  camouflage  work.  Where  it  is  impossible 
to  site  buildings  so  that  their  shadows  will  be  concealed,  it  is  de- 
sirable to  represent  them  as  being  something  else  from  what  they  are. 
A  French  report  before  quoted  states  that  they  should  be  built  to 
simulate  groups  of  cottages  or  farm  buildings. 

Buildings. — Buildings  of  large  size  and  hangars  can  be  made  up  by  painting 
the  roofs  red  if  in  a  region  where  the  roofs  are  covered  with  tile,  slate,  or 
straw  color,  according  to  the  locality.  False  windows  and  false  doors  can  be 
painted  on  walls  whitened  to  give  them  the  appearance  of  houses. 

To  divide  the  construction  to  the  eye  so  as  to  mask  its  importance,  a  part  of 
the  hangar  will  be  painted  white  with  a  red  roof  and  green  shutters.  Foi^ 
example :  Another  yellow,  with  dark-red  roof  and  brown  shutters,  etc. 

In  order  to  give  them  complete  illusion  of  occupied  houses,  it  would  be  quite 
possible  to  outline  artificial  gardens  with  false  hedges,  false  clumps  of  flowers 
made  with  little  hillocks  of  earth.     Little  walks  can  also  be  outlined. 

Heavy  guns  can  be  placed  in  these  buildings  disguised  as  peaceful  houses. 
As  for  little  buildings,  make  them  always  with  roofs  having  a  single  slope 
conforming  to  the  lighting  so  as  never  to  have  one  side  in  the  shade.  Zigzag 
the  outline  of  the  roof  in  order  to  avoid  straight  roofs.  In  the  case  where 
oblique  photographs*  could  be  taken,  put  a  hedge  or  branches  against  the 
highest  face  of  the  building  so  as  to  give  irregularity  to  the  wall.  Make  these 
buildings  as  low  as  possible. 

Shelters  for  aeroplanes  dug  in  the  ground  are  long  and  diflacult  to  establish. 
Hangars  disguised  and  distant  from  one  another  should  therefore  be  the  rule. 
The  open  side  of  a  hangar  will  be  placed  to  the  north  so  as  to  be  always  in 
the  shade.  If  oblique  photographs  are  taken,  this  gable  end  in  the  shade 
will  not  reveal  an  opening. 

PROTECTIVE   COLORATION. 

The  principles  of  protective  coloration  were  first  discovered  by 
naturalists,  who  found  that  animals  and  birds  were  colored  so  as  to 
blend  them  with  the  background  and  thus  protect  them  against  the 
animals  which  preyed  upon  them,  and  to  conceal  them  from  the 
animals  on  which  they  preyed.  All  objects  of  military  importance, 
therefore,  which  can  not  otherwise  be  concealed  should  be  protec- 
tively colored  so  as  to  render  them  less  visible  from  the  points  from 
which  they  may  most  probably  be  observed,  whether  from  aeroplanes, 
kite  balloons,  observation  posts,  or  the  ground. 

The  most  effective  means  of  protective  coloration  is  to  render  them 
similar  in  tone  and  color  to  natural  objects,  and  to  destroy  their 

1  By  this  is  meant  the  stereoscopic  photograph  before  described. 


22  CAMOUFLAGE  FOR  TROOPS  OF  THE  LINE. 

shadows.  Any  object  that  in  part  is  in  the  shadow  cast  by  itself  and 
which  is  liable  to  be  observed  from  about  its  own  height  should  have 
the  lower  part  painted  very  light;  in  the  case  of  a  circular  object, 
such  as  a  cannon,  the  bottom  third  should  be  painted  white,  and  the 
upper  third  darker  than  the  surroundings^  This  painting  should 
never  be  regular  but  should  be  blotched  in  blotches  of  a  size  to  be 
determined  by  the  probable  distance  from  the  observer.  Since  all 
natural  scenery  is  a  combination  of  color  and  shadow,  it  is  essential 
to  color  a  flat,  artificial  object  with  blotches  which  simulate  the  tones 
and  shadows  of  nature.  It  is  also  desirable  to  destroy  the  expected 
outlines  by  blotches  of  color.  A  square  box,  for  example,  can  be 
made  to  appear  other  than  square  by  blotching  comers  and  angles  in 
such  a  way  as  to  blend  with  the  shadows  of  the  sides,  making  the 
actual  form  difficult  to  determine. 

All  railroad  cars,  wagon  covers,  wagon  bodies,  guns,  and  gun  lim- 
bers, tanks,  auto  trucks,  and  the  like  should  be  painted  In  irregu- 
lar splotches  so  that  the  familiar  grouping  of  shadows  and  colors  of 
these  objects  are  lost,  since  we  recognize  objects  by  a  recollected  as- 
semblage of  light  and  dark  spots.    The  English  trench  helmets,  even, 
are  painted  in  irregular  daubs  to  match  up  with  the  colors  of  the 
trenches  against  which  they  appear.    In  spite  of  the  fact  that  camou- 
i    flage  by  color  alone  is  becoming  of  less  and  less  importance  as  the 
opposing  armies  have  learned  to  recognize  camouflage  painting,  its 
\  use  is  still  desirable,  and  should  not  be  omitted.    Although  guns  are 
'  rarely  in  action  without  an  overhead  covering,  they  may  still  be  visi- 
ble through  this  covering  and  may  be  discovered  if  their  color  is  uni- 
form.   Trucks  by  a  roadside  can  not  be  readily  seen  from  aeroplanes 
if  their  color  is  sufficiently  broken  to  blend  in  with  the  landscape.    As 
single  patches  of  color  they  are  i)lainly  visible. 

PAINT  AND  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

It  is  extremely  important  and  it  can  not  be  too  often  repeated  that 
all  objects  of  military  importance  should  blend  with  the  landscape, 
and  where  it  is  only  possible  to  do  tliis  work  with  sufficient  rapidity 
and  durability  by  use  of  paint,  paint  must  be  used,  but  natural 
objects  are  invariably  preferable  to  painted  imitations  of  natural 
objects  for  this  reason: 

Paint  may  not  appear  on  the  photographic  plate  as  it  does  to  the 
eye,  and  a  very  successful  ocular  simulation  may  be  absolutely  unsuc- 
cessful in  a  photographic  i)late.  No  paintwork  should  be  done 
except  after  thorough  experimental  photography  of  the  colors  in- 
tended to  be  used.  The  photographic  plates  now  in  common  use  by 
the  Allies,  and  probably  by  the  Germans,  are  orthocramatic  and 
panchromatic,  and  while  the  results  in  the  panchromatic  plates  ap- 
proximate the  color  values  more  closely  than  those  on  the  orthocra- 
matic plates,  by  the  use  of  special  filters  photographs  of  painted 
objects  are  apt  to  appear  completely  different  from  natural  objects. 


CAMOUFLAGE  FOR  TROOPS  OF  THE  LINE.  23 

Another  reason  for  the  use  of  natural  objects  is  that  paint  does  not 
change  with  the  season,  so  that  while  natural  colors  are  constantly 
being  altered,  artificial  colors  remain  fixed  and  become  apparent. 
Therefore,  no  camouflage  work  which  can  possibly  be  done  by  mud, 
dirt,  foliage,  shrubbery,  or  other  natural  objects  should  be  painted. 

GUN    EMPLACEMENTS    AND   MILITARY   WORKS. 

No  military  work  which  can  be  of  irregular  shape  should  be  of 
regular  shape.  Every  military  work  should  be  reduced  to  its  least 
possible  dimensions,  especially  in  the  direction  of  height.  In  every 
covered  gun  emplacement  when  the  covering  is  raised  to  give  com- 
mand, the  slopes  should  be  easy  and  natural,  growing  from  the  sur- 
rounding terrain  as  if  by  accident  and  not  by  design.  When  several 
gun  emplacements  are  near  together,  they  should  be  covered  by  a 
single  irregular  mound  instead  of  by  a  group  of  small  mounds.  As 
the  importance  of  a  position  may  be  determined  from  the  amount  of 
excavated  earth  which  surrounds  it,  it  is  therefore  desirable!  to  trans- 
port all  earth  to  a  distance.  Nor  should  natural  material  for  camou- 
flage covering  be  secured  in  the  immediate!  neighborhood  of  the  work 
to  be  camouflaged.  A  number  of  German  gun  positions,  otherwise 
very  carefully  camouflaged,  were  discovered  because  the  cut  turf  was 
noticed  in  the  territory  immediately  surrounding  them  and  the  en- 
tire locality  was  heavily  shelled.  As  there  is  constant  comparison  of 
photographs,  any  disarrangement  is  at  once  noted,  and  if  it  leads  to 
the  security  of  a  battery  position  the  waste  of  ammunition  by  the 
enemy  is  doubly  successful. 

Trenches  constructed  in  the  rear  of  old  positions  should  be  com- 
pletely covered  in  order  to  remain  undiscovered.  Screened  or  mov- 
able coverings  for  loopholes  should  alone  be  used,  with  minute  ob- 
servation openings.  Wire  entanglements  should  never  have  sym- 
metrical .outlines,  and  galvanized  wire  should  not  be  used  for  en- 
tanglements where  plain  iron  wire  can  be  obtained.  Posts  should  be 
painted  in  broken  colors  to  simulate  the  earth  or  background  as  seen 
from  the  enemy's  position.  Iron  pickets  for  wire  entanglements  are 
greatly  preferable.  It  is  desirable  to  omit  the  command  of  machine- 
gun  emplacements  altogether,  strong  bomb-proof  shelters  being  pro- 
vided and  machine  guns  set  up  in  the  open  when  necessary. 

RAILWAYS. 

Railways  of  standard  gauge  are  practically  impossible  to  conceal, 
but  the  roadbed  should  not  in  appearance  be  carefully  kept  up.  They 
may  be  so  sufficiently  disguised  by  grass  or  weeds,  either  permitted 
to  grow  or  artificially  planted,  that  it  will  be  difficult  to  range 
artillery  fire  upon  them,  and  if  they  are  used  only  at  night,  and  are 
of  sufficient  importance  to  warrant  the  trouble,  artificial  trees  or 
buildings  or  even  low  canvas  mounds  connecting  the  crests  of  hills 
at  each  side  of  cuts,  or  artificial  shell  holes  made  of  canvas,  may  be 
moved  upon  them  at  daybreak,  to  remain  until  a  free  track  is  desired. 


24  CAMOUFLAGE  FOR  TROOPS  OF  THE  LINE. 

Narrow-gauge  roads  should  follow  the  edges  of  roads  or  hedges 
bordering  fields  or  other  similar  artificial  lines.  If  it  is  necessary  to 
cut  across  fields  as  it  sometimes  happens  one  part  of  the  field  should 
be  plowed  in  a  different  direction  from  the  other  and  a  hedge  planted 
alongside  the  road.  The  railroad  will  thus  be  confused  with  the 
border  of  the  imitation  field. 

EevictualiWg  points  reveal  themselves  to  the  aerial  observer  by 
converging  paths  or  ways  toward  the  railroad.  The^e  points  should 
preferably  be  established  in  farmyards  or  at  other  similar  places 
where  trampled  condition  of  the  ground  already  exists. 

OBSERVATION  POSTS. 

Observation  posts,  especially  for  the  artillery  observer,  will  be  in 
general  armored  cupolas  prepared  and  erected  by  the  camouflage 
section.  The  artillery  officer  selecting  the  position  of  these  posts 
should  remember  that  the  artificial  positions  must  be  made  to  blend 
with  natural  surroundings.  In  the  case  of  forests  steel  observation 
trees  have  been  made  and  used  with  success  by  both  sides.  Capt. 
Gushing  Darnell,  R.  F.  A.,  states  that  in  the  1917  spring  offensive 
there  was  a  clump  of  trees  by  the  German  front  line  which  was  re- 
garded with  suspicion  by  the  British  Infantry.  They  discovered 
that  one  of  these  trees  was  probably  a  camouflaged  tree. 

Quoting  from  Capt.  Darnell : 

I  got  two  batteries  into  the  clump  of  trees.  When  the  camouflage  tree  wag 
knocked  down,  a  working  party  of  Germans  tried  to  rescue  the  observer,  with 
the  result  that  they  had  about  15  casualties  in  2  minutes  and  had  to  abandon 
the  camouflage  tree  with  Its  contents  to  the  tender  mercies  of  the  machine 
guns  and  snipers  in  the  front  line.  In  this  particular  case  the  tree  was  not 
over  50  yards  from  the  front  line  and  had  probably  been  in  use  for  some  weeks. ' 

Our  engineers  tried  to  construct  a  similar  tree.  No  sooner  was  it  erected 
than  a  regiment  of  Saxons  in  the  German  trenches  opposite  stuck  up  a  large 
signboard  on  which  was  written  in  English,  "  For  God's  sake,  take  that  damned 
thing  down." 

Trees  of  this  kind  must  be  of  good  size  and  must  be  covered, 
modeled  by  a  capable  sculptor  over  the  metal,  and  covered  with  imi- 
tation bark.  Artillery  officers  should  therefore  select  a  clump  of  trees 
which  includes  one  which  could  be  cut  down  and  replaced  by  an 
artificial  tree  of  similar  dimensions.  Observation  posts  in  Flanders 
are  most  commonly  located  in  ruined  houses  or  factories,  and  suit- 
able openings  for  observation  may  be  made  by  removing  stones,  tiles, 
or  rafters  and  replacing  them  with  hollow  stones,  tiles,  or  rafters 
with  slits  for  observation.  Even  an  elevated  piece  of  ground  may  be 
used  for  an  observation  point  if  a  single  lump  is  large  enough  to  give 
command  and  not  too  large  to  be  replaced  by  an  artificial  lump  of  the 
same  color,  size,  and  form.  Even  the  bodies  of  dead  soldiers  and 
horses  located  at  suitable  points  may  be  replaced  by  artificial  bodies 
covering  steel  observation  points.  In  all  such  cases  service  of  the 
camouflage  section  should  be  called  upon. 

o 


14  DAY  USE 

RETURN  TO  DESK  FROM  WHICH  BORROWED 


LOAN  DEPT. 

This  book  is  due  on  the  last  date  stamped  below,  or 

on  the  date  to  which  renewed. 

Renewed  books  are  subject  to  immediate  recall. 


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OCT  2  9  1969     % 


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KCCfR.  APR  2  7 '84 


LD  21A-50m-8,'57 
(C8481sl0)476B 


General  Library 

University  of  California 

Berkeley 


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